The Status of Women in Theravada Buddhism
Buddhism emerged in c. 569 BCE in Vedic times when society was androcentric. This attitude in Vedism was due to the importance it attributed to the Laws of Manu, which stated that women are prohibited even access to the Vedas. Under this doctrine, unmarried women and widows were restricted from spiritual and religious pursuits. It was believed in the Vedic period that women were capable of spiritual development only after marriage. In this Vedic society, childless and unmarried women were looked down upon. In comparison, one European visitor remarked on the difference he observed in the status of Singalese women of Sri Lanka, a country with one of the world's largest followings of Theravada Buddhism. He said, "They are not slaves, but...the companions and friends of their husbands"..."They possess [an] active sensibility, winning bashfulness and amicable ease."[1] In fact, in Sri Lanka in the 1960's, Sirimavo Bandaranaike became the first woman Prime Minister in the world. Sir Charles Bell states, " In Buddhist countries, women hold a remarkably good position [in society]."[2] In contrast, it is evident that the women in the Vedic society were degraded. Buddhist scholars including Jonathan S. Walters[3] and Jotiya Dhirasekera[4] have each presented Buddhism in a positive light when addressing the issue of the status of women. These scholars view Buddhism as providing women with the opportunity for advancement from the misogynist Vedic society; they see Buddhist women as playing an active role in Buddhism. Others such as Ellison Banks Findly[5] and Karen Christina Lang[6] have, in their articles, presented Buddhism as a more or less androcentric religion. Often, misinterpretations or selective interpretations of the Buddha's discourses unintentionally result in erroneous deductions that result in negative opinions. Jotiya Dhirasekera, was the Editor-in-Chief of the Encyclopaedia of Buddhism in Sri Lanka, and formerly of the Department of Pali and Buddhist Civilization at the University of Ceylon, and the Department of Sanskrit and Indian Studies at the University of Toronto. He brings attention to the fact that even the early Western pioneers of Pali translations have fumbled parts of their translations because of their ignorance of idioms.[7] Initially, I intend to present areas in the Buddha's teaching which seem to, at times, present the status of women in a negative light. Further on I will address interpretations from the opposite polarity, while stating my opinion on why he may have said things that were not necessarily, but may be considered androcentric. Accordingly, I will show that Buddhism is not the androcentric religion that certain scholars might think it to be.
Numerous arguments can be made as to why Buddhism may be considered androcentric. First and foremost, the Buddha refused the ordination of women. Mahapajapati Gotami sent Ananda Thera, the Buddha's cousin and personal attendant priest for the last 20 years of the Buddha's life, to ask Buddha to allow the ordination of women into the Sangha. Initially, he disapproved of the idea. Ananda Thera pleaded on her behalf, three times with the same request and twice the Buddha denied him, but agreed on the third occasion. This time, the Buddha agreed, but only with great reluctance. For many, this contradicts the Buddha's original claims that women possess the same spiritual potential as men and that they, too, could reach the status of arahant, i.e. who is fully liberated. The Buddha agreed to the ordination of women provided they accepted 8 rules in addition to the 227 already laid down for the bhikkhus. The 8 rules were: 1) A nun who has been ordained (even) for a century must greet respectfully, rise up from her seat, salute with joint palms, do proper homage to a monk ordained but on that day. 2) A nun must not spend the rains in a residence where there is no monk. 3) Every half month a nun should desire two things from the Order of monks: the asking of the Observance day, and the coming for the exhortation. 4) After the rains a nun must "invite" before both orders in respect of three matters: what was seen, what as heard, what was expected. 5) A nun, offending against an important rule, must undergo discipline for half a month before both orders. 6) When, as a probationer, she has trained in the six ruled for two years, she should seek ordinations from both orders. 7) A monk must not be abused or reviled in any way by a nun. 8) From today, admonition of monks by nuns is forbidden admonition of nuns by monks if not forbidden.[8] Were these imposed to make it more difficult for women than men to join the Sangha, thereby discouraging them to do so? Did these rules mean that the bhikkhus had control over the bhikkhunis? Were these rules meant to subjugate women?
There are instances in the Anguttara Nikaya where women are symbolized as Mara's or Lord Death's, snare, women having the ability to ensnare a man.[9] They are used as bait, by Mara, to deter men from their goal of arahantship. Mara even tries to use his daughters, Lust, Craving and Discontent to turn the Bodhisatva away from his spiritual pursuit. Karen Christina Lang has written an article on this issue: Lord Death's Snare, in which she addresses "the early Buddhist writing that associates women with the body and the profane world of sensual desire."[10] Diana Y. Paul draws attention to this in her book, "Women in Buddhism." The translation of the particular sutta which she has chosen reads: " Monks, a woman, even when going along, will stop to ensnare the heart of a man; whether standing, sitting or lying down, laughing, talking or singing, weeping, stricken, or dying, a woman will stop to ensnare the heart of a man."[11]
In non-Buddhist texts, women are said to have a stronger sex drive than men. It is thought that this idea has been incorporated in some Buddhist literature. "Sexual energy was unequivocably repugnant in early Buddhist sects such as the Theravadin sect" and "What was feminine and sensual was samsara....this world of feminine had to be vanquished at all costs."[12] This seems to be very denigrating to women.
In one of the Buddha's discourses, Ananda Thera is recorded as asking the Buddha, "How are we to conduct ourselves, Lord, with regard to womankind?". To this, the Buddha replies, "As not seeing them, Ananda". Then, Ananda Thera asks, "But if we should see, then what are we to do?" The Buddha replies, "Not talking Ananda." Then, Ananda Thera asks the Buddha, "But if they should speak to us lord, then what are we to do? Finally, the Buddha replies, "Keep wide awake, Ananda."[13] Here it seems that the Buddha is advising Ananda to be very cautious and wary when in the presence of a woman.
These points, thus far presented, can be viewed from another perspective indicating Buddhism to be an egalitarian religion, and that it did, in fact, hold women in a social status equal to that of men. As per the first point, that the Buddha initially refused the ordination of nuns, the possible reasons why are tenfold. There are several psychological reasons: one of the psychological reasons might have been that women of the Sangha, often being mothers might revert to the layperson's life after ordination, due to their deep emotional attachment to their children and family. Another psychological reason for the delay in ordination of women could have been woman's disadvantage with regards to psychological composure due to biological reasons. By this, it is meant changes in temperament, which occur due to hormonal changes during each period of the monthly cycle. This could result in a lack of ability to concentrate on meditation, thus causing them greater effort to reestablish the level of focus prior to the cycle.
There are several external reasons as to why the Buddha delayed the ordination of women. It is important to remember that at the time, around 560 BCE, society was still dominated by Vedic attitudes, and, as mentioned before, women were subjugated. It was not that the Buddha agreed with the Indian society, but this was the reality of the situation. The propagation of his teaching for the benefit of many was an important motivation to the Buddha. This might have made him reluctant to establish the female order prematurely, until the value of his teaching had been received and appreciated by a fair number of the androcentric society of that time. The monastic order was dependent on the lay people for their basic needs. Without their support, there would not have been even a male monastic order. But, once the teaching was reasonably well established, there was no longer the potential handicap of ordained Buddhist women being looked down upon by Indian society of the time, possibly to the same degree as prior to its establishment. This is why only after some time had elapsed after the establishment of the order of Bhikkhus did the Buddha agree to the establishment of the order of Bhikkhunis. Even as far as the 227 rules for the Bhikkhus were concerned, initially, the Buddha did not impose any rule. But, as time passed and incidents occurred, the Buddha introduced them as and when he saw appropriate.[14] In the same way, we could assume that the Buddha established the order of bhikkhunis as and when he felt the time was conducive, taking into consideration the attitude of Indian society towards the status of women at the time. Buddha, in the Vinaya, even tells monks not to break the branches off trees, and not to eat horseflesh or tiger flesh.[15] These rule were imposed, not because they were considered to impede spiritual development, but rather to satisfy the society in which the monks lived and where doing such things were not customary. If the monks consumed such meats, they would have lost support from the lay people who gave them necessities to sustain their life. In much the same way, the monks would have lost support from the lay people if the Buddha had allowed the formation of the female order prematurely. Respecting the traditions of society did not hinder spiritual development. On the same note, certain men were refused ordination at the time. In the Magandiya sutta,[16] a man named Magandiya, of another religious persuasion, challenges the Buddha on his teachings of giving up sensual pleasures. Once the Buddha opened Magandiya's eyes to reality, Magandiya accepts his error in placing value in sensual pleasures. He then pleads with the Buddha to ordain him as a monk, but the Buddha refuses. Instead, the Buddha requires him to serve a probationary period of four months, after which time, he would decide whether to provide Magandiya with ordination, which he did on a later occasion. This again illustrates that the Buddha recognized that the time was not appropriate for him to ordain this aspiring monk, and instead he deferred the ordination until the time was more appropriate.
With regards to the 8 additional rules imposed upon the bhikkhunis, the Buddha had reason. The first rule requires that even a senior nun must pay homage to a monk even if he was ordained only for a day. When worshipping a monk or a nun, it is the robe that is paid respect, rather than the particular individual. Since the male order was established prior to the female order, all the monks are senior to the nuns in this manner, no matter when he was ordained. The principle that the order of the bhikkhus is senior to the order of the bhikkhunis underlies all 8 of the rules. It is the male order that protects the female order when the female order is vulnerable and needs protection. Remember here that the Vedic society had quite unfavorable attitudes of women at that time. A nun could spend the rainy season at a layman's home only if a bhikkhu was in close proximity, for reasons of safety. Perhaps the Buddha aspired for unity amongst the two sections of the Sangha, giving rise to the rules requiring the presence of both orders during ordination of women and other such significant events. Furthermore, it is only reasonable that both orders should be present at the events listed in the rules, since both orders make up the Sangha, and an addition to the female order would result in an addition to the Sangha. As for the nuns treating the monks with respect and not being allowed to reprimand them: the male order being the senior institution of the Sangha, should be respected as younger people respect their elders. The more recently formed and less experienced order of nuns ought to remain humble enough to ask the order of monks for advice and assistance as and when required.
My understanding of what is meant by woman's ability to ensnare a man is somewhat different from the interpretations previously conveyed. What I believe is meant by the sutta is that the mind of a man is easily drawn towards a woman, thus causing attachment. Giving up attachment to objects is the very goal of Buddha's teachings. Mara and the image of woman are used here as symbols of tempting material objects or negative emotions of the human mind such as lust. Also, we have to take into account the variability in translation from Pali to English, Diana Y. Paul's choice of translation is quite different from that of Jotiya Dhirasekera which reads: "Women ensnare a man of heedless mind with their glances and smiles or with artful grooming and pleasing words. Women are such that one cannot approach them in safety even though they may be stricken and dead..."[17] Unlike Paul's translation, Dhirasekera's translation conveys the idea that woman does not actively do anything to ensnare a man; rather, it is man with a heedless mind that is ensnared. It is man's own fault that he cannot resist temptation, not the woman's, for he is drawn even to a corpse. Man is responsible for his own actions. Finally, it is very important to note one sutta from the Anguttara Nikayas in which the Buddha says that nothing ensnares a man's heart more than a woman or a woman's heart more than a man. This shows that both sexes are sources of cravings to each other.[18]
The comments on sexuality seem gross exaggerations of the attitude towards females in Theravada Buddhism. To equate feminine to sensual is not the Buddha's teaching. Sensuality of all forms including craving for sex i.e. lust, was taught to be an impediment to spiritual development. It is inconceivable that the Buddha who stated that the whole of his teaching is based on all-embracing kindness, or Metta has stated that the "world of feminine had to be vanquished at all costs." Here, I feel that "the world of feminine" is used to convey the world of sensual pleasures.
As far as the Buddha's advice to Ananda as mentioned, it is meant perhaps to guide Ananda in his pursuit of Arahantship. To overcome samsara, one must overcome all cravings, including attachment that arises out of lust. The advice is given so that Ananda may prevent feelings of lust by avoiding a situation that would cause such arousal. In doing so, one who is not yet liberated or one who has not reached enlightenment can come that much closer to it.
There are numerous instances in the Buddha's discourses in which he praises the abilities and virtues of women, acknowledging that they have an important place in society. In the Book of Kindred Sayings, he says, "A woman, O lord of men, may prove even better offspring than male. For she may grow up wise and virtuous."[19] In the same collection of suttas, he stresses that a laywoman " who possess religious devotion, cultivates virtue, is endowed with wisdom and learning and is given to charity makes a success of her life in this very existence."[20] In these discourses, women were looked upon with admiration, not aversion. Another very good illustration of the status of women in Theravada Buddhism comes from the Culavedella sutta from the Middle Collection of discourses.[21] A layman, Visakha who is a non-returner, comes to his former wife, the bhikkhuni Dhammadinna, an arahant. In the path to Arahantship, there are four stages: 1) A stream winner,[22] 2) A once returner,[23] 3) A non-returner,[24] 4) A Liberated one.[25] Dhammadina was obviously of a higher spiritual attainment than her former husband was. He asks her many intricate questions regarding the four noble truths, and she is able to answer all of them. After this discussion, he pays homage to Dhammadinna and then goes to the Buddha to whom he recounts his encounter with his former wife. To him, the Buddha says, "The Bhikkhuni Dhammadinna is wise, Visakha, the bhikkhuni has great understanding. Had you asked me the meaning of this, I should have given you the same reply." This sutta serves to draw a parallel between the Buddha's response and that of Dhammadinna, as the Buddha notes no difference. Evidently, the Buddha held some women in very high esteem. They hold a very important place in Theravada Buddhism and especially within the Sangha as propagators and voices of the Dhamma. As we have seen, it is very important that translators maintain the original meaning of the text, since even the slightest error in translation can alter the theme of an entire discourse. These discourses are what people use to form their opinions of Buddhism. Although institutionalized Buddhism, at times, might give cause for women to be considered inferior, in my opinion, they were not. Rather, women hold a very important position in Theravada Buddhism.
Endnotes
1. L.S. Dewaraja, The Position of Women in Buddhism (The Wheel Publication, Sri Lanka, 1981), 1.
2. Ibid. 5.
3. Jonathan S. Waters, "Voice from the Silence: Buddha's mother's story," in History of Religions 33, no 4. (1994): 358-379.
4. Jotiya Dhirasekera, Buddhist Monastic Discipline (M.D. Gunesekera & Co, Sri Lanka, 1982).
5. Ellison Banks Findly, "Women and the Arahant Issue in Early Pali Literature," in Journal of Feminist studies in Religion.
6. Karen Christina Lang, "Lord Death's Snare: Gender-related Imagery in the Theragatha and the Therigatha," in Journal of Feminist Studies of Religion (1986): 63-79.
7. Jotiya Dhirasekera, Buddhist Monastic Discipline (M.D. Gunesekera & Co, Sri Lanka, 1982), 1.
8. Ibid, 142. The English translations in this book are his own.
9. Anguttara Nikaya, III, ed. E.M.Hare (Pali Text Society, 1995), 56.
10. Karen Christina Lang, "Lord Death's Snare: Gender-related Imagery in the Theragatha and the Therigatha," in Journal of Feminist Studies of Religion (1986): 67.
11. Diana Y. Paul, Women In Buddhism (University of California Press, 1979), 52.
12. Ibid, 5.
13. Digha Nikaya, ed. Maurice Walshe,( Buddhist Publication Society, 1996), sutta no.6.
14. Jotiya Dhirasekera, Buddhist Monastic Discipline (M.D. Gunesekera & Co, Sri Lanka, 1982), 51.
15. Nyanatiloke Thera, Buddhist Dictionary. (Frewin &Co., 1972).
16. Majjhima Nikaya, ed. I.B.Horner. (Pali Text Society, 1995), sutta no. 75.
17. Jotiya Dhirasekera, Buddhist Monastic Discipline (M.D. Gunesekera & Co, Sri Lanka, 1982), 140. The English translations in this book are his own.
18. Anguttara Nikaya, I, ed. F.L Woodward, (Pali Text Society, 1995). 1.
19. Jotiya Dhirasekera, Buddhist Monastic Discipline (M.D. Gunesekera & Co, Sri Lanka, 1982), 137. The English translations in this book are his own.
20. Ibid, 138.
21. Majjhima Nikaya, ed. I.B.Horner (Pali Text Society, 1995), sutta no.44.
22. A stream-winner has maximum 7 rebirths and is never born below the human plane of existence.
23. A once-returner has only one more life in the human plane of existence.
24. A non-returner has only one more life, and it is above the human plane.
25. A Liberated is one who has no rebirth.
Selected Readings
Anguttara Nikaya, I, ed. F.L Woodward (Pali Text Society, 1995)
Anguttara Nikaya, III, ed. E.M.Hare (Pali Text Society, 1995).
Dewaraja, L.S.. The position of women in Buddhism (The Wheel Publication, Sri Lanka, 1981)Dhirasekera, Jotiya.
Buddhist Monastic Discipline (M.D. Gunesekera & Co, Sri Lanka, 1982).
Digha Nikaya, ed. Maurice Walshe. (Buddhist Publication Society, 1996).
Findly, Ellison Banks. "Women and the Arahant Issue in Early Pali Literature," Journal of Feminist studies in Religion.
Lang, Karen Christina. "Lord Death's Snare: Gender-related Imagery in the Theragatha and the Therigatha," Journal of Feminist Studies of Religion. (1986): 63-79.
Majjhima Nikaya,ed. I.B.Horner. (Pali Text Society, 1995).
Nyanatiloke Thera. Buddhist Dictionary. (Frewin &Co., 1972).
Paul, Diana Y., Women In Buddhism. (University of California Press, 1979).
Waters, Jonathan S.. "Voice from the silence: Buddha's mother's story," History of Religions 33, no 4.(1994): 358-379