Representations of Kali in Patriarchal Society
Perhaps one of the most significant developments among Western religions has been the effort to make clear contact with the feminine dimension in religious experience. One of the few world religions that has female deities is Hinduism. Hinduism is in fact one of the world's most complex religions. Not only does it make use of numerous myths, rites, and customs - but it is a tradition that has evolved from prehistoric times. An important feature of this ancient religion is the worship of mother goddesses; possibly the most complex and many-sided of these is the goddess Kali. Moreover, not only are the representations of Kali's characteristics complex, but her depiction has moved away from its original matriarchal worship towards the demonizing aspects that have been brought about by patriarchal societies.
With the discovery of archeological remains in the Indus Valley, there have also been discoveries of numerous terracotta figurines. While their function has not yet been determined there has been little question about their importance. The Goddess has been worshipped in Her various forms for almost a millennia - not only in India, but around the world. In India, Her generic name in Sanskrit text is Devi, which means simply "goddess" (Hawley 1996: 2). There are in fact four popular goddesses[1] who have been worshipped in India at various time and in various ways. Kali is one of the more significant of these.
The goddess Kali is somewhat distinctive from the other popular Hindu goddesses. Her name is translated as "she who is black" or "the black one" (Kinsley 1993: 134). She is a goddess who is usually depicted in relation to violent battles, in which her passions have arrived at a tremendous intensity. In situations such as these, it generally appears that Kali is expressing the "wrath of the divine" through acts of severe violence. Kali is often described as drinking the hot blood of her victims and then dancing out of control - threatening to destroy the cosmos itself (1993: 134). In appearance and function, Kali symbolizes uncontrollability that neither humans nor the male gods can overcome. Kali's appearance has been represented by various images over the years. Perhaps Kinsley describes her best when he states:
Her hair is disheveled, her eyes red and fierce, she has fangs and a long lolling tongue, her lips are often smeared with blood, her breasts are long and pendulous, her stomach is sunken, and her figure is generously gaunt. She is naked but for several characteristic ornaments: a necklace of skulls or freshly cut heads, a girdle of severed arms, and infant corpses as earrings. She is usually said to have four arms. In the upper left hand, she holds a bloodied cleaver, in her lower left, a freshly cut severed head; her upper right hand makes the sign "fear not," and her lower right hand, the sign of one who confers boons (Kinsley 1996: 77).
Such a description of Kali's appearance reemphasizes the wickedness and uncontrollable behavior that are seen in her unique characteristics.
In addition, Kali's habits reinforce her horrible appearance. Her two favorite places to prowl are the battlefields and the cremation grounds. On the battlefield, Kali is said to carry a staff topped with a skull. She howls fiercely and consumes her rivals by eating their flesh and drinking their blood (1996: 78). Similarly, in the cremation grounds, Kali is usually said to be surrounded by snakes, jackals, and ghosts. Moreover, while in the cremation grounds, she is frequently depicted as sitting on a corpse. Unlike other Hindu deities, Kali does not have an animal vehicle and instead rides a ghost (1996: 78). In regards to her drinking blood, she is often found drinking it not only on the battlefields, but also when she receives animal sacrifices at her temples (1996: 78).
Kali is associated with three other Hindu deities in Hindu mythology - Durga, Parvati, and Siva. In each of these cases her behavior continues to be fearsome and destructive. One of Kali's most famous myths is the one where she is called upon by Durga to kill the demon Raktabija ("drop of blood"). Raktabija has the ability to recreate himself when a drop of his blood touches the ground. Thus, when Durga wounds him, she only creates more problems. Kali rescues Durga by swallowing the blood-born demons and then sucking the blood from the original Raktabija until he is destroyed (1996: 78). This myth is an example of Kali's manifestation as Durga's uncontrollable passions when the goddess is presented with a daunting task. Kali plays a similar role in her relationship with Parvati. Parvati is usually seen as a nurturing goddess; however, from time to time she demonstrates her destructive aspects. It is through Parvati's destructive interpretations that Kali is used as the main means of representation (1996: 78).
In her associations with the god Siva, Kali is continuously depicted with these destructive behaviors. Nevertheless, in these instances Kali is often tamed by Siva. In South India there is a popular myth regarding a dance contest between the two. According to the myth, Kali lived in a forest with fierce companions and they began to terrorize the area. A devotee of Siva became distracted in his practices, and he called to Siva to rid the forest of the violent goddess and her consorts. When Siva appeared, he challenged Kali to a dance contest and defeated her when she was unwilling to match his energetic dance (1996:80). Although Kali is said to have been defeated and forced to control her habits, she is still often portrayed as defeating or controlling Siva. Kali is frequently shown as standing or dancing on Siva's limp or dead body. In this myth it is said that Siva has tamed Kali, yet it seems from many representations that he never did tame her. In fact, Kali is most popularly represented as being more apt to provoke Siva into dangerous activity, than she is to submit to his control (1996: 80).
In Hinduism, the goddess is said to be the embodiment of Maya, Prakrti, and Sakti. As a representation of the goddess, Kali may be understood and expressed in the truths of these ideas. The term Maya means "superimposition grounded in ignorance." The world in which humans live, and the world that is seen by the gods, represent the dueling ego's that threaten cosmic and human order (1996: 82). Kali's wild appearance can been seen in these aspects of Maya. Prakrti is also the created order consisting of three qualities - purity, energy, and lethargy.[2] Together these qualities create the material world (1996: 82). Prakrti can be understood as the smothering of spirituality, which can be difficult to control. Kali's representation of Prakrti can be seen as this uncontrollable essence. She is growth, decay, death, and rebirth - completely unrefined. Sakti is most often translated as "power and might", which is usually personified through a goddess. Numerous goddesses represent the divine in action (1996: 82). Kali is that representation, but of power that is out of control. She dominates the calm and the chaotic in such a way that action becomes threatening and dangerous.
With Kali's uncontrollable behaviors, she puts the order of dharma in perspective by reminding the Hindu people that certain aspects of life are untamable. These aspects in life can be threatening to societies that attempt to place order to what is disorderly - life itself. (1996: 84). Kali is known to her devotees as the divine mother because she gives birth to a vision that is greater than the one embodied in the order of dharma. The order of dharma is restricting to lifestyles, and it is Kali that makes sense of the confusion. The greater vision that she presents may be understood in a positive way. Hindu religious traditions of reality usually transcend the social order (1996: 84).
From the perspective of Moksha, which is described as the release from the endless rounds of rebirth and death, the order of dharma is seen as a good realm. Dharma places order in a hierarchy society that must be left to find the ultimate goal. Dharma's function places reborn souls in appropriate categories to sustain order in society. Kali stands outside the dharmic order. Although threatening it, Kali may be seen as the one who induces people to see a wider vision of their destiny. Kali has the power to either send a person back to dharma or to rouse a person to seek out Moksha (1996: 84). Kali's appearance is a reminder that all her characteristics are not terrifying, but that instead they may promise an endless life (Vitsaxis 1977: 91).
Descriptions of Kali frequently form an alternative view of history, as well as a powerful critique of patriarchy. In 800 B.C.E., matriarchal societies were wide spread. These societies were usually based on goddess worship and the elevation of women in society (McDermott 1996: 287). It is believed that these societies were eventually subjected to the domination of patriarchal peoples. These patriarchal peoples are often said to have wrested the power from women, thus taming or marginalizing the goddess. It is important to remember that in prehistoric times women were respected and regarded as agents of the Mother Goddess (1996: 287). Like Kali, goddesses were typically seen to be powerful agents of creation and destruction, with the added ability of balancing these aspects. Many scholars claim that the patriarchal groups feared female deities, and therefore they demonized the idea of goddesses. Demonic manifestations such as Kali, developed from this religious and political domination of patriarchal societies (1996: 287).
Historical statements made in connection with Kali begin with the pre-Aryan Dravidians and Harrapas in India, who are said to have been goddess worshipping matriarchal societies. As the Aryans arrived and conquered these people, they started the process of demonizing the indigenous goddesses (1996: 287). The Aryan's priesthood, being male, felt threatened by the feminine perspective. Their standpoint was powerful in the portrayal of deities, and especially critical with relation to Kali. For example, Kali's dark sexual aspects were emphasized in an attempt to discourage followers from her worship.
As these societies participated in demonizing the female deities, Kali's later representations become clearer. As Kali dances on the corpse of her husband Siva, it seems plausible that such an image could have been shaped by men. Male roles are what gives structure and definition to most of Hindu society. Goddesses bear a seemly positive demeanor when they are subjected to the will of the husband - when they serve within the structure provided by their spouse. However, when these goddesses act against the structures that are provided by men, they appear to be dangerous and threatening (Hawley 1996: 11). Thus, there is a great deal of evidence suggesting that patriarchal groups guided the female representations in order to maintain control.
As a matter of fact, in much of his writing Hawley suggests that men know that women possess a power that exceeds the structures they would like to impose. These structures have been called dharma - the way things should be according to the dominant male (1996: 11). While this may be, Kali is in fact needed by the gods to confront the demons that they themselves cannot contain. However, once the gods release her from themselves and allow Kali to express her "true form", she becomes uncontrollable. Given the views of the men in the Hindu tradition, the question becomes - what hope do goddesses like Kali offer to women in these patriarchal situations?
Goddesses play many roles in Indian and Hindu literature. They are asked to intercede in almost every detail of life. For instance, barren women often fast and worship many goddesses in order to become pregnant. In addition, both men and women frequently ask for solutions to financial problems and for protection in relationships (Preston 1980: 13). Therefore, in Hinduism goddesses are seen as mothers, protectors, and mediators - as well as the inducers of chaos. There is a connection between the role of women in Indian life and the position of female deities within Hinduism. Indian women are supposed to be devoted to their husbands, who are in turn embodiments of the deity. Nevertheless, women may also be supreme in their households as mothers of their children (1980: 13). Motherhood is regarded with great respect in India.
Consequently, patriarchal societies have overcome the stance of matriarchal function through suppressing the characteristics of the goddesses. Kali's representations show the change in attitude towards the female deities since they have been demonized to rid control from women. The image of Kali is depicted as standing with her foot on the corpse of Siva, this is a representation of the aggression potential of the female when she becomes dominant. Not only are the goddesses capable of love and nurturance, they are also a source of justice, playing an important role in the struggle between good and evil which permeates the condition of man. Devotees may worship a goddess in enquiring the promise of new birth and for restitution of injustice due to oppression and cruelty of fate.
Endnotes
[1] For further information on Durga, Lakshmi, and Sarasvati, please refer to Hinduism: A Cultural Perspective written by David R. Kinsley (1993).
[2] These three qualities are also known as the three gunas: sattva, rajas, and tamas.
Works Cited
Hawley, John Stratton, "The Goddess in India" in Devi: Goddesses of India Editors: John Stratton Hawley and Donna Marie Wulff. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, 1996. Pgs 1-28.
Kinsley, David R., Hinduism: A Cultural Perspective 2nd ed. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1993.
Kinsley, David R., "Kali: Blood and Death" in Devi: Goddesses of India Editors: John Stratton Hawley and Donna Marie Wulff. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, 1996. Pgs 77-86.
McDermott, Rachel Fell, "The Western Kali" in Devi: Goddesses of India Editors: John Stratton Hawley and Donna Marie Wulff. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, 1996. Pgs 281-313.
Preston, James J., Cult of the Goddess New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House PVT Ltd., 1980.
Vitsaxis, Vassilis G., Hindu Epics, Myths, and Legends in Topular Illustration Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1977.